Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

Sex Chromosome Abnormalities Sex chromosome abnormalities occur as a result of chromosome mutations brought on by mutagens (like radiation) or problems that occur during meiosis. One type of mutation is caused by chromosome breakage. The broken chromosome fragment may be deleted, duplicated, inverted, or translocated to a non-homologous chromosome. Another type of mutation occurs during meiosis and causes cells to have either too many or not enough chromosomes. Alterations in the number of chromosomes in a cell can result in changes in an organisms phenotype or physical traits. Normal Sex Chromosomes In human sexual reproduction, two distinct gametes fuse to form a zygote. Gametes are reproductive cells produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. They contain only one set of chromosomes and are said to be haploid (one set of 22 autosomes and one sex chromosome). When the haploid male and female gametes unite in a process called fertilization, they form what is called a zygote. The zygote is diploid, meaning that it contains two sets of chromosomes (two sets of 22 autosomes and two sex chromosomes). The male gametes, or sperm cells, in humans and other mammals are heterogametic and contain one of two types of sex chromosomes. They have either an X or a Y sex chromosome. However, the female gametes or eggs contain only the X sex chromosome and are homogametic. The sperm cell determines the sex of an individual in this case. If a sperm cell containing an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be XX or female. If the sperm cell contains a Y chromosome, then the resulting zygote will be XY or male. X and Y Chromosome Size Difference The Y chromosome carries genes that direct the development of male gonads and the male reproductive system. The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome (about 1/3 the size) and has fewer genes than the X chromosome. The X chromosome is thought to carry around two thousand genes, while the Y chromosome has less than one hundred genes. Both chromosomes were once about the same size. Structural changes in the Y chromosome resulted in the rearrangement of genes on the chromosome. These changes meant that recombination could no longer occur between large segments of the Y chromosome and its X homologue during meiosis. Recombination is important for weeding out mutations, so without it, mutations accumulate faster on the Y chromosome than on the X chromosome. The same type of degradation is not observed with the X chromosome because it still maintains the ability to recombine with its other X homologue in females. Over time, some of the mutations on the Y chromosome have resulted in the deletion of genes and have contributed to the decrease in the size of the Y chromosome. Sex Chromosome Abnormalities Aneuploidy is a condition characterized by the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes. If a cell has an additional chromosome, (three instead of two), it is trisomic for that chromosome. If the cell is missing a chromosome, it is monosomic. Aneuploid cells occur as a result of either chromosome breakage or nondisjunction errors that happen during meiosis. Two types of errors occur during nondisjunction: homologous chromosomes dont separate during anaphase I of meiosis I or sister chromatids dont separate during anaphase II of meiosis II.Nondisjunction results in some abnormalities, including: Klinefelter syndrome is a disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome. The genotype for males with this disorder is XXY. People with Klinefelter syndrome may also have more than one extra chromosome resulting in genotypes which include XXYY, XXXY, and XXXXY. Other mutations result in males that have an extra Y chromosome and a genotype of XYY. These males were once thought to be taller than average males and overly aggressive based on prison studies. Additional studies, however, have found XYY males to be normal.Tuner syndrome is a condition that affects females. Individuals with this syndrome, also called monosomy X, have a genotype of only one X chromosome (XO).Trisomy X females have an additional X chromosome and are also referred to as metafemales (XXX). Nondisjunction can occur in autosomal cells as well. Down syndrome is most commonly the result of nondisjunction affecting autosomal chromosome 21. Down syndrome is also referred to as trisomy 21 because of the extra chrom osome. The following table includes information on sex chromosome abnormalities, resulting syndromes, and phenotypes (expressed physical traits). Genotype Sex Syndrome Physical Traits XXY, XXYY, XXXY male Klinefelter syndrome sterility, small testicles, breast enlargement XYY male XYY syndrome normal male traits XO female Turner syndrome sex organs dont mature at adolescence, sterility, short stature XXX female Trisomy X tall stature, learning disabilities, limited fertility Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

Penetrating and Blunt Abdominal Trauma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Penetrating and Blunt Abdominal Trauma - Essay Example The author discussed, in detail, the various medical interventions done on the patients and their possible complications that arose during the duration of their hospitalization. As for the health assessment procedure rationales mentioned in this journal, Eckert discussed a flow of the procedures. Observation as to the patient's appearance upon encounter is to be done first. Presence and location of wounds as well as the depth and entrance and exits sites for penetrating wounds should be noted. Next, the author noted that auscultation is to be done prior to palpation as to prevent alteration of bowel sounds due to manipulation (p.53). Presence or absence of bowel sounds should be done comprehensively, covering all 4 quadrants. Nurses should check the quality, frequency and any abnormality in the bowel sounds. Auscultation over major blood vessels not only in the abdominal area but also in near regions that may be affected such as the femoral vessels should be checked. Palpation will e licit the presence of abdominal tenderness, rebound tenderness, guarding, texture of abdomen and any irregularities. Several organ injury scales were discussed by Eckert. Among the scales mentioned that were being used in the nursing practice were the 6-level Liver Injury Scale, the 5-level Splenic Injury Scale, 5-level Kidney Injury Scale, and 5-level Pancreatic Injury Scale. The Penetrating and Blunt 3 population discussed in this journal is the patients with abdominal trauma. Most, if not all of the cases in this journal were emergency or acute cases. I think that among the strengths of this journal is the comprehensiveness and practicality of this journal to nursing practice. Its use of case studies gives the reader a picture of what is to be encountered in the emergency rooms or intensive care units in the hospital setting. It was very thorough in explaining the different procedures done on the patient and each of its rationale. The journal introduces to the reader some information on the anatomy and physiology of some of the vital abdominal organs which are commonly affected in abdominal trauma. This is most helpful to nursing students who are still beginners in the field for them to have an idea of the interplay between these organs. This journal also gives information on the ancillary procedures usually done on the patients, highlighting the most pertinent or practical for each case or organ. For example, the author stated that the CT scan is the most sensitive diagnostic tool for most abdominal trauma injuries and between th e FAST scan and the diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL), the FAST scan is more utilized in most emergency cases because it is non-invasive and inexpensive compared to DPL. Also to be commended is the use of some visuals such as pictures of the different interventions. It also made use of some flow charts or concepts maps in nursing assessment in specific situations and included the indications for surgery and admittance to the ICU. This article was able to capture my interest because it is easy to understand and very thorough in explaining the various assessments, procedures and treatments involved in patients with

Pop-culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Pop-culture - Essay Example The print and the electronic media, entertainment tools like music and television, have done absolute justice to the job of brainwashing the impressionable minds of youth. Traditional culture and ideology have traditionally been the binding forces of the society, but in the contemporary age, spirit of the youth is being systematically destroyed by the onslaught of popular culture. The traditionalists and the modernists are permanently at war over approaches to social issues. While the modernists are positive that their endeavors are directed at development of a new society, the traditionalists lament about the steady demise of the indigenous values. A world of interconnectedness is slowly emerging and no one can precisely estimate how circumstances would shape up in the future. However, a strong view prevails that this interconnectedness is heading toward decay of moral and ethical values rather than leading to the path of cohesion and prosperity. In its attempt to pursue individual happiness, the younger generation has compromised societal values and become distracted and clueless. Ill effects of their activities mostly outweigh their honest dispositions and merits. An offshoot of the popular culture viz. the growth of Jazz provides an example. Jazz music arrived like an avalanche on the American media and became omnipresent in no time. Its growth was not contemplated, like the spread of greenery in the thick jungles of Amazon. The sapling of Jazz grew as it was watered with the agony of the black people. The roots of jazz can be traced back to the times of slavery when slave work songs were made as ‘call-and-response’ to narrate stories for pastime. These songs reflected the blacks’ internal rebellion against the sufferings and cruelties inflicted on them by the white race. Black people brought with them jazz to the big cities as they started to migrate to Chicago and New York with

Activism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Activism - Essay Example The purpose of art activism is to be heard collectively. Its major focus lies on the issue at hand and not on the artist as an individual (Cohen-Cruz, 2002). Art activism moves people through what they see. It stirs up something inside the viewer to do something. It was a medium that has been used by many to change the course of history. Art activism can be expressed in many ways. The examples are many; the Harlem Renaissance in 1919-1929, it was an early depiction of an African-American activist art. There was Angelina Grimke’s play â€Å"Rachel†, the stage was used to be heard clearly that everyone is equal, regardless of color and race. In 1917 Lenin used the colorful festivals to advance his agenda in Russia. These are just few examples of the power of Activist art (Cohen-Cruz, 2002). Artistic skills can be used to attract the attention of the public; it is an aid for the public so it can look deeply on social and political issues. Concert for example can be used to promote peace on war stricken and famine stricken country like Africa. People respond to the message of the music, it touches the hearts of its hearers. Art has the capacity to move the audience to reevaluate the accepted views. It can direct by consent and not by force as someone puts it (Cohen-Cruz, 2002). Having declared everything, I want to move on to the proposal. To use arts in order to get people’s attention; and to make them see or understand, and to persuade them to get involved. I asked people about what they think or feel on specific subjects. Majority of people I asked are having difficulty on expressing their thoughts regarding certain issues. I find it even difficult extracting from them what they think about what makes them proud or what makes them happy and what will make them hate themselves. They even find it difficult to complete sentences like â€Å"I am satisfied when I (†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), I hate myself when I (†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), and I think self confidence is (†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.). When I

Roosevelt Teddy :: Essays Papers

Roosevelt Teddy He first tried the law profession by enrolling in Columbia University. He did not enjoy it and soon left school. He published his first book in 1882 it was entitled â€Å"The Naval War of 1812†. He had begun work on it while still at Harvard. Then Teddy decided that he would try a career in politics. His first position was on the state assembly in the state of New York. He ran as a republican and won the position easily. At this position he did two major things: first he exposed a corrupt judge and secondly he learned to work with men from both parties. Instead of going for a second term of legislature he decided that he would go to the Republican National Convention in Chicago. He went as the chairman for the New York delegation. While Roosevelt’s professional life was flourishing his personal life was not in very good shape. In 1884 both his wife and mother died. His wife died while giving birth to their daughter, Alice. Roosevelt would take a break from politics and form the Elkhorn ranch on the Little Missouri River in the Dakota Territory. On his ranch he led the life of a cowboy. He would round up cattle and ride horses all day. It was a good break for Roosevelt. One story tells of Roosevelt capturing three thieves and holding them at gun point for 6 days until they reached the proper authorities. Also during this time Roosevelt wrote 2 more books (Hunting Trips of a Ranch Man and Thomas Hart Benton) and fell in love with Edith Kermit Carow. On December 2, 1886 Roosevelt and Carow went to London to be married. When they returned to the United States Roosevelt set his mind back on politics. He was very active in the presidential campaign of 1888 when Benjamin Harrison defeated Grover Cleveland. Roosevelt believed in hiring government workers on their skills not based on their party affiliation. At the time the winner of the race would hire every one that had helped them win the race even if they were not qualified for the position. Harrison would award his efforts by appointing him the U.S. Civil Services Commissioner. As commissioner he would continue to challenge â€Å"patronage†. He did such a good job that when Cleveland beat Harrison for reelection he kept him as Civil Services Commissioner. In 1895 Roosevelt would return to New York City to

Causes of Forest Fires

The world has many natural disasters which cause many human and material losses. An example of these disasters are floods, air pollution and forest fires. So, this essay will highlight the main causes of forest fires. The first main cause of forest fires is because of nature. It can be caused by many factors like lightning . When the Lightning strikes a tree, the tree begins to burn with fires which expanded to other trees and unlikely the flames continue non-stop.For instance, the numbers of forest fires which destroying million of hectares of valuable trees are increasing more than 100,000 in USA (rubychacha, Boutique Market Research Agency: online). Forest fires can be caused by earthquakes since it cause a lot of massive fires where it lead to incidence many losses whether human or martial. For example, the greatest destruction which caused by earthquake in San Francisco in 1906, it took only a minute but it caused many worst natural disasters like one of them forest fires.Anothe r disaster, it is in Tokyo in 1923 where it caused a huge forest fires (Arbor Day Foundation: Causes of Forest Fires). They are other factors from nature cause forest fires, such as, high temperature with drought and strong wind ,all this factors lead to fires. Bush-fires in the summer frequently occur in Australia (rubychacha, Boutique Market Research Agency: online). Due to the fact, the nature can cause many wounded on the world like forest fires disasters. The second main cause of forest fires is because human.Clearing land is a good example can cause forest fires which sometimes we cannot control it (buzzle, Bora: online). There are several reasons make them burn trees such as social problems or there is no reason maybe only pyromania and this is known as retardation. Also in the mass demonstrations that the protesters make many crimes like one of them burn the forests. According to the Arbor Day Foundation that human carelessness increasing about more than 80 percent.Smokers a re one of causes of forest fires because they do not make sure that they get rid the cigarette. That what happens in many Arab and western countries because of human being. In conclusion, I think that human should be careful in our lives because one mistake can make a big problem like forest fires. However, dry weather can cause forest fires like what happening in Australia every summer. Therefore, human should be careful when they use petroleum materials.Resources Bora, C. What Cause Forest Fires. [online]. Available at: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/what-causes-forest-fires. html [Accessed on 16 March 2012] Boutique Market Research Agency. What Are The Causes Of Forest Fires. [online]. Available at: www. rubychacha. com [Accessed on 14March 2012] Arbor Day Foundation. Causes of Forest Fires. [online]. Available at: http://www. ehow. com/about_5163647_causes-forest-fires. html [Accessed on 28 March 2012]

The Exclusivity of the Art Market - 875 Words

â€Å"That which costs little is less valued,† said novelist Miguel de Cervantes (Saavedra, 1819). A phenomenon very true to the art markets, one might say. Elitism and exclusivity drive the art world. Value of art works is socially and subjectively constructed, based on one’s concocted rationales of what is significant and what is not. Giving art works the title of commodities, hence, is rather trivial, particularly due to the nature and quality of these works. One cannot, however, deny that in the case of contemporary art, capitalism and the art world seem to run hand-in-hand. Ben Lewis’ 2009 documentary â€Å"The Great Contemporary Art Bubble† provides a pretty clear picture of money and power concentrated in an unregulated art market where†¦show more content†¦The documentary presented examples of British art-world businessman Charles Saatchi who triggered and supported the extraordinary prices for the works of Damien Hirst, as well as collector Jose Mugrabi, whose collection of 800 Warhols indubitably amounts to cornering the market. (Lewis, 2009) Art markets are notorious for their lack of transparency and information asymmetries provide several opportunities for immoral activities to take place. (Velthuis, 2011) On the day of the declaration of bankruptcy by Lehman Brothers, the worst financial crisis in history, Damien Hirst sold his art at a record price of  £70 million, in an auction at Sotheby’s. It was apparent, however, that Hirst and his colleagues had manipulated the sale prices by engaging dummy bidders into the auction sales. (Lewis, 2009) Thus, while the rest of the economy was slowly falling apart, the contemporary art bubble kept on inflating, bigger than ever before. It was the peak of the contemporary art bubble, and also the start of its downfall. A month after this triumph, the contemporary art market crashed, dropping by 40% in November 2008 and 75% by February 2009. (Art Market Trends, 2011) Additionally, budget and subsidies cuts for cultural institutes were seen all over Europe and UK, following the recession of 2008. As a result, many galleries and institutions had to close shop. In entirety, the art market experienced a huge loss of confidence due to the financialShow MoreRelatedTiffany and Co. 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